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Linden
By Deb Soule, Herbalist and Founder of Avena Botanicals In southern Maine, the linden trees begin blooming late June. Their sweet fragrance invites thousands of honey bees to feed upon the abundant nectar that the yellowish-green blossoms produce. Linden, also known as American Basswood (Tilia americana), can be found scattered throughout Maine. The European Linden (Tilia europeae) and the Little-Leaf Linden (T. cordata) are commonly used by New England landscapers for shade trees. (Baxter Boulevard in Portland, Maine is lined with both species.) Tilia europea and T. cordata are shorter and contain smaller leaves than our native species which grows to a height of 50-70 feet and a diameter of 2-3 feet. The genus Tilia encompasses about 30 species of trees, native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, in Asia (where the greatest species diversity is found), Europe and eastern North America. In most herb books, Linden is listed in the Tiliacea Family. However, genetic research by the APG has more recently incorporated the Tiliacea Family into the Malvaceae Family. American Basswood's leaves are 5-6 inches long, heart-shaped, toothed, and a dark green color on the upper surface. Young leaves tend to be hairy. Each flowers' five petals grow to be 7-12mm long and are found at the base of a slender stalk which is attached to a long, narrow, yellowish leaf-like bract. The hard, woody round fruit, containing 1-2 seeds, is covered with short, brown-colored hairs, and is approximately the size of a pea. These fruits remain attached to the leaf-like bract, aiding the wind in carrying the seeds as they drop. The bark of old trees is deeply furrowed while the bark on young trees is smooth or slightly fissured and a grey color. In her book, Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants: A Historical Survey with Special Reference to the Eastern Indian Tribes, Charlotte Erichsen-Brown references how several different Native American tribes relied heavily on the inner bark for cordage, basketry, mats and many other utilitarian objects. The wood continues to be appreciated by various artists, including wood carvers and furniture makers, as it is soft and easy to work with. I first met a row of Linden trees, lining the dirt drive of an old farm in southern Maine, while they were in full bloom. I stood mesmerized by the loud and ceaseless sound of the honey bees frantically collecting the nectar. The air was truly thick with the sweet fragrance of the linden's flowers. This hedgerow of 50 foot tall trees made a cool, shady canopy that was lovely to hang out under during the heat of June and July. Farmers, gardeners and herbalists alike will benefit from planting the native and European species. Linden can be propagated by seed, cuttings, young saplings (available through FEDCO Trees and other tree nurseries) or by grafting. A hedgerow of lindens planted on the windward side of an orchard offers excellent protection for young trees and will attract pollinators to the orchard or farm once the trees begin producing flowers. The FEDCO tree catalog says that linden prefers deep rich moist soils, but will grow in dry heavier alkaline soils, in full sun or partial shade. The catalog also says the Tilia americana species is sensitive to salt and pollution, grows from New Brunswick south to Virginia, and may live up to 900 years. Linden flowers are gathered by climbing a ladder or better yet, by keeping some of your trees pruned so flower collecting can happen with more ease. The flowers and leaf bract dry quickly and store well in air-tight, glass jars. You can also make a tincture from either fresh or dry flowers and leaves. Best to collect the flowers when they first open and in the early morning hours when the air is still fresh and cool and the flowers fragrant. The famous European herbalist Juliette de Bairacli Levy always taught that the medicine of flowers is stronger when the flowers are collected before too many bees have visited them. The first cup of linden flower tea I ever enjoyed was while visiting friends in England, where it is called lime blossom. In Europe the flowers are commonly used as a beverage tea alone or in combination with chamomile and honey. A warm cup of linden and chamomile flowers helps to reduce irritation and restlessness and promotes a restful sleep. The flowers' aroma and flavor is delicate and sweet, creating a relaxing and pleasant tasting tea. A hot tea, made with linden, elder flowers and chamomile, acts as a diaphoretic and is effective for lowering a fever and helping resolve a cold or flu. Even linden flowers alone, along with bed rest, can be extremely helpful for children and seniors with fevers and influenza symptoms. Consider using the tea for easing a swollen, red sore throat, laryngitis, and a dry cough where thirst and irritability are also present. Linden is highly regarded as a relaxing remedy, easing nervous tension and stress. British Herbalist David Hoffman writes about the Tilia europea species: “It has a reputation as a prophylactic against the development of arteriosclerosis and hypertension. It is considered to be a specific in the treatment of raised blood pressure associated with arteriosclerosis and nervous tension. Its relaxing action combined with a general effect upon the circulatory system give Linden a role in the treatment of some forms of migraine.” European herbalists in general value the Linden flower for its restorative effect on blood-vessel walls. “There is a persistent reputation for it helping with cases of arteriosclerosis (like the horse chestnut, that shares a similar saponin). Modern practice has also seen its potential in the treatment of other disorders of the vasculature: varicose veins, phlebitis, and auto-immunological attacks on the vessel walls, such as arteritis. (Out of the Earth, Simon Mills, pg. 406) Linden flower tea combined with rose petals can be called upon to help calm a person's spirit and reduce nervous tension and unrest, headaches, mild palpitations, and shortness of breath. In Traditional Chinese Medicine these symptoms are considered to be a constraint of the heart chi or liver yang rising. If symptoms persist, it is important to seek out a holistically minded health care professional. Warm baths with a tea or with pure essential oils of linden, lavender and rose added is also deeply relaxing and restorative to one's spirit. As when using any new herb, best to first try it alone and in small doses. There are no known contraindications for linden flowers, though there is always a chance a person can have an allergic reaction to a plant. Please consider planting a row of linden trees, for the bees and for herbalists who may be looking for local sources of fresh and dry flowers and leaves. At Avena Botanicals, we are finding it harder to obtain certified organic linden that is domestic or European. It appears that the Chinese are beginning to grow Linden for the international market and crowding out the once available European linden. If you are in a more urban setting or are looking to plant a hedgerow along a road or drive, consider planting the Tilia europea or T. cordata species. The more hardy, nectar producing perennial trees and shrubs we can plant, the happier and healthier our pollinator friends and our planet as a whole will be.
Staying Healthy Through the Fall and Winter Season
Autumn is the season of harvest for those of us living in the north country.
Gardeners and farmers are busy bringing in squashes, carrots, onions, leeks, garlic, beets, rutabagas, pumpkins, apples, pears, grapes and kale. It is the time when we gather in the fruits of our labors, both external and internal. Autumn is the beginning of a more inward time. The fall equinox, Sept 22-23, marks the point when our nights become longer than our days.
More time is spent inside with family and friends and with indoor projects. Autumn is the beginning of colder temperatures, harsher winds and the cold and flu season. Taking good care of ourselves during the fall months will help us stay healthier through the winter months.
Traditional Chinese Medicine equates different seasons with different organ systems. The lungs and 
large intestine are associated with autumn. Autumn is a good time to pay extra attention to the health of our lungs and colon in preparation for the long winter ahead. Lungs do not like cold, damp weather. The practice of keeping the whole body warm, especially the neck, chest, head and feet with scarves, hats and wool socks helps prevent colds and chest infections. If you are exposed to cold winds or dampness, be sure to warm yourself thoroughly with a warm bath or shower or hot foot bath and hearty warm soups with garlic and herbal teas, like Avena Botanicals Immune TonicTea that contains ginger, cinnamon, licorice, astragalus, codonopsis and cooked rehmannia root.
A diet of lightly steamed root vegetables and greens, sea vegetables, hearty soups, whole grains, and good quality and easy to digest protein helps to keep the intestines toned and the eliminative organs functioning well. Root teas and tinctures such as dandelion, burdock, yellow dock, ginger, and licorice root help ease constipation when taken every few days. Beginning your day with a cup of warm water and a squeeze of lemon or lime or a cup of freshly grated ginger root tea with lemon or lime is a healthy way to wake up your digestive system and gently eliminate the metabolic wastes made during the night. Avoid drinking cold drinks of any kind first thing in the morning and throughout the fall and winter. Ending your day, after dinner, with a small cup of triphala powder stirred into hot water, will ensure good bowel movements and gently cleanse toxins from the bowel.
Some of my favorite fall and winter root tinctures include Astragalus, Codonopsis, Echinacea, Eleuthero, and Solomon's Seal. Astragalus and codonopsis roots support good digestion, strengthen the lungs, and ensure healthy production of various immune cells in the bone marrow. These two immune tonic herbs can be taken as tinctures, in tea or in soups over several months to keep the immune system functioning well. During an acute cold, flu or respiratory infection, it is best to stop using tonic herbs, such as astragalus and codonopsis, until the infection is resolved. However, for recurring colds and upper respiratory tract infections, astragalus can be used with other herbs such as echinacea, elderberry, licorice and thyme. Eleuthero, commonly known as Siberian ginseng, is an excellent adaptogenic herb to use through the fall and winter to strengthen the immune system and increase resistance to various types of stresses including emotional, environmental, and occupational. Solomon's seal is an especially favorite nutritive tonic herb of mine with many valuable attributes. It is a safe herb to use over several months to nourish the body's vitality, or life force.
Throughout the winter I enjoy drinking Immune Tonic Tea and tea blends which contain herbs such as calendula, nettles, oats and sacred basil. I often combine Lemon Balm and Lavender glycerites with St. Johns wort tincture for clients who feel mildly depressed due to the cold and lack of light. Ginger glycerite is a delicious tasting remedy I use to warm me up when I come in from the cold. And Elderberry Elixir is one of my reliable flu and cold preventive formulas I tend to use 3-4 times a week throughout the wintertime.
Traditional Chinese practitioners say that the kidneys (the organs most affected by wintertime),"open to the ears". May the foods and herbs described above help keep you healthy and may the quietness of winter allow you to hear your internal musings and the subtle songs of the natural world more clearly.
Lady's Mantle
Lady's mantle is a hardy perennial, native to western and central Europe, extending as far north as Sweden and as far south as central Greece. Its botanic name, Alchemilla, is derived from the Arabic word for alchemist, alkemelych. Drops of dew and rain collect along the edge of the rounded and plaited leaves and within its cup-like center, emanating a magical and jewel-like sparkle, especially at dawn. Vermont herbalist Adele Dawson, wrote in her book Herbs: Partners in Life, “It is said that the diamond-like drops of dew, which gather in the accordion-pleated leaves of Alchemilla, were thought by the alchemists to undergo some subtly benign influence from the plant and were used in many mystic potions.” Adele was the first herbalist to show me how to rinse my face with the morning dew and how to sip the healing waters from the leaves.
Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris), a member of the rose family, is widely cultivated in North American herb gardens. The genus Alchemilla, contains over three hundred different species, native in various parts of Europe. Lady's mantle grows to be eighteen inches high with rounded, palmate leaves containing seven to nine lobes. The leaves range from two to eight inches in diameter and are finely toothed. Sprays of the tiny, yellow-green, star-shaped, petalless flowers form loose panicles which bloom from mid-June into July in Avena Botanicals garden. (zone 5, mid-coast Maine)
Lady's mantle is an easy perennial to grow, best propagated in the spring or fall once a plant is 4-5 years of age. Carefully divide the plant with a sharp spade, making sure that the new section has buds and some root. This plant can grow in the full sun or in partial shade and in deeply-dug soil that has good drainage. It prefers slightly acidic soil and looks lovely when planted in groupings along the front border of a garden bed, pathway or around a small pond or garden basin. This plant requires little maintenance other than harvesting the flowering tops and leaves for tea, tincture or flower bouquets, or trimming the flowers once they have gone by.
In Avena Botanicals herb garden, we gather the flowers and leaves when the plant first begins to bloom. Though the leaves are considered to be the medicinal part of the plant, I have always tinctured and dried both the leaves and flowers. The leaves contain tannins which have astringent and styptic properties, helpful for stopping the bleeding of a wound or controlling heavy menstruation. For heavy periods, I like to combine the tinctures of lady's mantle, white yarrow flowers and fresh shepherd's purse flower, leaf and stem. A tea or tincture of lady's mantle can reduce diarrhea and soothe irritated mucous membranes of the throat, mouth and gastrointestinal tract.
The well respected Austrian herbalist, Maria Treben, often recommended Lady's mantle tea for strengthening the heart muscle and for enhancing overall muscle tone to the body. She would suggest lady's mantle for people with multiple sclerosis, prolapse of the uterus and hernias. Other herbs which combine well with lady's mantle for assisting a woman with prolapse of the uterus are white oak bark, white ash bark, and astragalus root.
Many herbalists today regard lady's mantle as “women's medicine”. Besides being useful in reducing heavy menses and aiding a woman with a prolapsed uterus, Alchemilla helps to strengthen the uterine tissue by removing excess dampness and inflammation. It is an excellent herb to promote conception and to use after birth as a tonic for a woman's uterus and abdominal tissues. I especially encourage women who have recently (or long ago) given birth to use lady's mantle with red raspberry leaf and yarrow tea to help prevent prolapse uterus. Lady's mantle has a gentle harmonizing influence on the menstrual cycle and can be used from puberty through menopause. British herbalist Elisabeth Brooke, author of Herbal Therapy for Women, suggests using lady's mantle when there has been a trauma to the uterus from a miscarriage, abortion, pelvic inflammatory disease, surgery of any kind, or use of an IUD. Herbs such as calendula, rose petals, self-heal and white yarrow can be used in combination with the lady's mantle to promote healing for the uterus. For post-partum bleeding, lady's mantle, white yarrow and shepherd's purse can be used.
I have always felt that lady's mantle supported women through various kinds of physical and emotional transitions associated with the menstrual cycle, mothering and menopause. This plant is associated with the qualities of grace, gentleness and elegance. A small amount in tea, alone or with other herbs, offers a woman strength, protection and support in which to be the author of her own life, to stand strong in her own knowing.
Herbalist Matthew Wood writes in The Book of Herbal Wisdom, “Just as Lady's Mantle acts on the yin or feminine element on the microscopic level of the organism, so does it act on the aggregate structures and the whole organism itself. Not only does it help gynecological problems, which are so often connected with fluids, but it exerts a psychological or magical influence as well. In the same way in which the subtle, invisible membrane preserving the cohesion and integrity of the droplet is maintained, we can imagine Lady's Mantle making a subtle, invisible membrane around a woman”.
I do believe, as the old alchemists did, that there is healing in these dew drops. If a person has ever sat and observed the sparkling nature of these water droplets in the early morning light with the birds singing, they will know that healing can and does occur in simple and unexplainable ways. I often think of the following quote from author Terry Tempest Williams when sitting in the garden at dawn.
Experience is our way back home
This work requires an unguarded heart
Improving each day
Protect and celebrate a love that is wild
Throw flowers at all that is evil
There is magic among us
The source of our power is in the Earth
The birds teach us how to listen.
Solomon's Seal
Solomon's Seal is a member of the Liliaceae family. Polygonatum biflorum (commonly called true solomon's seal or smooth solomon's seal) and P. pubescens (commonly called dwarf solomon's seal) are the two species that are native to the eastern half of North America. They can be found in shady, moist woods and occasionally in open areas. Charlotte Erichsen-Brown, author of Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants, states that the range of P. biflorum is from southern N.H. down through Conn., southwest Quebec to southern Manitoba on south to northern Mexico and Texas and that the range of P. pubescens is from Nova Scotia south to Pennsylvania and Indiana, Minnesota, and in the Appalachian mountains south to northern Georgia.
Mrs. M. Grieve, author of A Modern Herbal, first published in England in 1931, writes, “The generic name Polygonatum signifies many-angled, and is supposed to be derived either from the numerous knots or swellings of the root or from the numerous nodes or joints of the stem. The origin of the common English name of the plant is variously given. Dr. Prior tells us it comes from ‘the flat, round scars on the rootstocks, resembling the impressions of a seal and called Solomon's, because his seal occurs in Oriental tales.' Another explanation is that these round depressions, or the characters which appear when the root is cut transversely, and which somewhat resemble Hebrew characters, gave rise to the notion that Solomon ‘who knew the diversities of plants and the virtues of roots,' has set his seal upon them in testimony of its value as a medicinal root. Gerard maintained that the name Sigillum Solomons was given to the root partly because it bears marks something like the stamp of a seal, but still more because of the virtue the root hath in sealing and healing up green wounds, broken bones and such like, being stamp't and laid thereon.' The name Lady's Seal was also conferred on the plant by old writers, as also St. Mary's Seal (Sigillum Sanctae Mariae).” Page 749
Herbalist Matthew Wood says, “When the stem dies back at the end of the season it detaches from the root leaving behind a round mark that looks like a little ‘seal.' Each year, a new unit of root is generated and a new stem rises up. Thus, there is a mark for every year the plant has been growing. These little ‘seals' reminded people of the sigils or enscribed circles used by magicians to invoke spirits. King Solomon was associated with wisdom in the Bible, and later with magic. Hence, this plant was called Sigilum Salomonis or Solomon's Seal.” (The Book of Herbal Wisdom, pg 395)
Botanical Description
Polygonatum biflorum and P. pubescens have similar botanical characteristics. The main difference between the two species is their height. Polygonatum biflorum reaches 16-24 inches and P. pubescens grows to about 16 inches. P. pubescens is a more northern species than P. biflorum, though they do overlap in some areas. The other obvious difference, other than height, is that the underside of the leaf of P. pubescens, Downy Solomon's Seal, has downy-like hairs.
The graceful, arching stalks of solomon's seal have alternating leaves which begin halfway up the stem. These pale green, oval-shaped leaves clasp the stem at the leaf's base and contain distinctive longitudinal ribbing. Bell-shaped creamy colored flowers grow from the axils of the leaves and droop in clusters. The tip of each flower has a yellowish-green tint and is sweetly scented. In the fall showy blue fruits the size of a pea appear and contain three to four seeds. The creeping rhizomes are whitish, twisted and full of knots.
The species Polygonatum multiflorum is native to northern Europe and Siberia and has similar botanical characteristics as the North American species described above. P. multilflorum's medicinal properties are much the same as the North American polygonatum species. Please note however that also growing in the North American woods is a plant named False Solomon's Seal (Smilacina racemosa). This plant has similarly looking leaves and rhizomes except that the flowers of the false solomon's seal form a terminal cluster at the end of the stalk and produce berries in the fall that are red. Smilacina racemosa does contain some medicinal properties. Refer to Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants.
Cultivation
Solomon Seal is a hardy perennial and grows well in a moist and shaded or partly shaded environment. In my garden along the coast of Maine, Polygonatum boflorum thrives in a moist bed which receives at least 5 hours of morning sun and 2 hours of late afternoon sun. When happy, the plants multiply quickly by the creeping rhizomes. An annual top dressing of leaf-mould or compost in early spring is recommended. The rhizomes appreciate being divided every three to five years so that they have room enough to continue spreading. Once the stalks decay in fall, the rhizomes can be divided and replanted, or made into medicine. Cut 2-4 inches off the lead sections along with the roots and place in pots or into a newly prepared bed. When planting new rhizomes, work the soil well with a fork and add in some well rotted compost.
Propagating from seed is slow and a bit more difficult. William Cullina, plant propagator for The New England Wildflower Society writes in his book Growing and Propagating Wildflowers of the United States and Canada, “Collect the berries when they have turned fully blue-black and extract the copious large white seeds (the berries are favored by wildlife, so act quickly). Sown immediately and put in an outdoor frame, the seed will germinate hypogeally the first spring with the cotyledon emerging the second season. Transfer these to small pots and grow them one more season and they will be ready for full size pots or the garden the following year.”
Medicinal Uses
Solomon's Seal has become one of my favorite plants to use medicinally and to grow. Many springs ago, as I stood admiring the plants' drooping whitish flowers, a hummingbird suddenly appeared and began feeding on the flowers. Being an admirer of the ruby throated hummingbird, I delighted in this moment. My solomon's seal patch has continued to be visited by these magnificent pollinators for the past 6 springs. I have now added solomon's seal to my list of medicinal plants which feed the ruby throated hummingbird.
True solomon's seal and hairy solomon's seal have a long history of use amongst Native Americans. The rhizomes were often cooked and eaten, made into poultices for healing wounds, bruises, inflammations of the skin, and sore eyes and taken internally to ease coughs and constipation. Refer to Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants for more information on Native peoples uses.
I use a fresh root tincture for people who are healing various muscular-skeletal traumas or weaknesses. When the tendons, muscles, ligaments or joints have been torn, bruised, overstretched, or have become too tight or inflamed, solomon's seal tincture or tea is excellent to use, 2-3 times per day, for 1-6 months, or longer if needed. The root is mucilaginous and lubricating to connective tissues, bone, ligaments, tendons and muscles. Solomon's seal, combined with boneset and teasel root, is my favorite herbal formula for healing broken bones or torn tissue. Solomon's seal is remarkable at bringing more flexibility of movement to people who are suffering from a recent or old injury and for strengthening the muscular-skeletal system following an injury or surgery. Regular use of the root by people receiving chiropractic care can help keep an adjustment in place. Solomon's seal root can be infused into a vegetable-based oil for 1-2 weeks (ideally at 100° F) and used topically as a massage oil for easing tendonitis and other types of joint and muscle pain.
The rhizome has a sweet taste and is cooling and moistening to the body. Its mucilaginous qualities soothe the mucus membranes of the digestive tract, lungs, and vagina. A root tea or powdered root drink assist the healing of an irritated or inflamed digestive tract or lungs. The roots are beneficial for a person who has a dry cough with sticky mucus that is difficult to expectorate. Because of its cooling and moistening nature, the root restores strength and vitality to a child or adult recovering from a high fever or for women experiencing hot flashes, fatigue, vaginitis or vaginal dryness.
For women, solomon's seal root tea or tincture is excellent to use regularly for ensuring abundant reproductive secretions, for healing inflamed vaginal tissue and for easing vaginal dryness. It is an herb to consider adding into a fertility enhancing formula. Solomon's seal root mixed with white pond lily tubers and green, milky oat seeds, is an effective combination for lubricating dry vaginal tissue and for soothing and healing any trauma or inflammation to the vagina. I consider this herb to be nourishing and building for women who wish to conceive, for new mothers, for women who feel overworked and stressed, for women going through menopause and for post-menopausal women.
I have come to regard solomon's seal root as an adaptogenic herb. Adaptogens are herbs that help the body and mind adapt to various kinds of stresses, both personal and global. Adaptogenic herbs are safe to use over several months and can be used individually or in combination with other adaptogenic herbs such as Eleuthero (siberian ginseng) root, astragalus root, codonopsis root, licorice root, nettle leaf and sacred basil.
Roots and adaptogenic herbs help us through times of change. Herbalist Matthew Wood writes the following passage about roots, such as solomon's seal, in his book The Book of Herbal Wisdom, “(They) usually have a ninety-degree angle in their construction, indicating an affinity to making profound changes or turns in life. They help bring a person to a transformative place or help them go through the change, or help them adapt to a change that has already occurred. The ninety-degree angle represents joints in the organism, and key-joints in the path of life.”
Attracting Pollinators Using Medicinal Herbs and Flowers
By Deb Soule, Herbalist and founder of Avena Botanicals
“Pollinating insects are essential to our gardens, to most of the earth's flowering plants, and to human beings who are dependent, like every organism, on the web of life.” Charles D. Michener, Watkins Professor Emeritus of Entomology University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Approximately 75 percent of flowering plants depend upon animal pollinators-insects, birds, bats and 
other animals- to transfer pollen grains from the male to the female parts of flowers for the purpose of reproduction. The exact number of pollinator species is unknown-estimates vary from 130,000-300,000 - with the greatest number being insects.
Bees are considered to be the most important group of insect pollinators because of the deliberate way they gather pollen to bring back to their nests for feeding their offspring. In the process of their foraging, the female bees unintentionally transfer pollen to thousands of flowers. Bees, as well as hummingbirds, tend to be more “species specific” when visiting flowers. This makes them more effective as pollinators than flies and beetles who feed on the nectar of a variety of species (some beetles feed on the flower itself) and only by chance is the pollen that sticks to their bodies delivered to another flower.
Flowering plants make up the majority of our vegetable and fruit crops, seed crops, medicinal plants, and crops that provide hay, fiber and fuel. Besides being economically vital and necessary for the health of humans, flowering plants are ecologically essential for the wellbeing of our natural ecosystems. Throughout history, the fragrance and beauty of flowers has offered the human spirit and psyche inspiration and healing. Native peoples worldwide have myths and ceremonies about pollen and flowers, illustrating the significance of plants and their pollinators to the web of life.
The following is a partial list of some of the more common medicinal plants, flowers, and flowering trees that grow well in New England and provide nectar and pollen to ruby-throated hummingbirds, native bees, honey bees and butterflies. These plants can be included in a small backyard garden or park, or integrated into the larger landscape of a farm or estate.
HUMMINGBIRD FLOWERS
Eighteen hummingbird species are known in the United States, 9 are known in Canada, and 63 are known in Mexico. The ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) is the only species that breeds in eastern North America. It arrives in New England late April. The females are the last to head south, usually by mid-September. Both the female and male hummingbirds winter mainly in the tropics from southern Veracruz west across lowlands to Sinaloa, to Yucatan Peninsula, Belize, Honduras, western Nicaragua and western Costa Rica. (Hummingbirds of North America, pg. 191)
HONEY BEE FLOWERS
The order Hymenoptera is a diverse and economically important group of approximately 125,000 described species, comprising of bees, plant-feeding saw-flies, parasitic and nonparasitic wasps, and ants. (Zayed and Packer, 2005). The order includes within its ranks the principal managed pollinators of the world, bees in the genera Apis, Bombus, Megachile, Osmia, and Melipona, as well as numerous unmanaged species of bees. Several of the following flowers are visited by honey bees as well as native bees and other insects.
BUTTERFLY FLOWERS
Butterflies and moths belong to the Lepidoptera Order of which there are approximately 150,000 species worldwide. (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005). Butterfly larvae are host-specific for their food. Once adults, most Lepidoptera pollinators are generalists, visiting a wide variety of nectar sources. As pollinators they transfer small amounts of pollen, but travel longer distances to visit flowers of the same species than do bees, and thus are important in maintaining gene flow within and among populations (Herrera, 2000).
RESOURCES
Bees of the World. 1999. O'Toole, C., and A. Raw.
Butterfly Gardening: Creating Magic in Your Garden. 1998. Xerces Society and Smithsonian Institute. This book contains detailed advice on all aspects of creating and managing gardens for butterflies, moths, and other beneficial insects; each chapter is written by an acknowledged expert.
Cross-Pollination: The Marriage of Science and Poetry. 2004. Gary Paul Nabhan.
The Forgotten Pollinators. 1996. Stephen L. Buchmann and Gary Paul Nabhan.
Growing 101 Herbs That Heal. 2003. Tammi Hartung.
Insects and Gardens: In Pursuit of a Garden Ecology. 2001. Eric Grissell.
Pollinator Conservation Handbook. 2003. The Xerces Society. Excellent resource. www.xerces.org/poll/index.htm.
Making Plant Medicine. 2002. Richo Cech. Richo is the seedsman for Horizon Herbs, a seed company in Williams, OR that specializes in organic medicinal herb seeds. Richo has written several small pamphlets on growing medicinal herbs, available through Horizon Herbs.
Monarch Watch. An educational outreach program of the University of Kansas that promotes the conservation of monarch butterflies.
www. monarchwatch.org
North American Pollinator Protection Campaign. Consortium of conservation groups, government agencies, universities, and private industries from North America who share information and work together on behalf of pollinators. http://www.nappc.org/ tel: 415-362-1137
Status of Pollinators in North America. Compiled by the Committee on the Status of Pollinators in North America. 2007. www.nap.edu
Toward Saving The Honeybee. 2002. Gunther Hauk. The Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association.
A Woman's Book of Herbs. 1996. Deb Soule.
